1、 Historical Background Review
1.1 Historical attempts of Arab military alliances in the Middle East
The Middle East has always been a focal point of conflict, and Arab countries have made multiple attempts to establish military alliances to address internal and external challenges. In the 1950s, Egypt, Syria, and northern Yemen formed the United Arab States in an attempt to enhance regional influence through joint efforts. At that time, Egyptian President Nasser advocated pan Arabism, hoping to confront Western powers and Israel as a unified Arab country. This alliance attracted widespread attention at the time. However, due to the difficulty in coordinating the interests of the three countries in politics, economy, and other aspects, as well as the intervention of external forces, the Arab United States ultimately failed to sustain.
After the Gulf War, Gulf countries strengthened their military cooperation with each other in response to regional security threats. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and other countries have established close military cooperation with the support of the United States to jointly defend against external threats. Especially Saudi Arabia, with its abundant oil resources and strong economic power, plays an important role in military cooperation in the Gulf region. By purchasing a large amount of advanced weapons and equipment and signing military cooperation agreements with major countries such as the United States, it has enhanced its own and its allies’ military strength.
In recent years, faced with Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence expansion, Sunni Arab countries such as Saudi Arabia have attempted to form new military alliances. Driven by the United States, Saudi Arabia has strengthened military cooperation with countries such as the United Arab Emirates and Egypt, attempting to form a united front against Iran. These countries joined forces to support the Hadi government in the Yemeni civil war, resist the Houthi armed forces, and attempt to maintain regional security and their own interests through military means. But this alliance also faces dual challenges of internal contradictions and external pressures, and its stability and effectiveness are still questionable.
1.2 Analysis of the Reasons for the Failure of Historical Military Alliances
There are complex and profound reasons why the military alliance of Arab countries in the Middle East has repeatedly attempted but ultimately failed. Firstly, internal conflicts are the key factor that makes it difficult to maintain the alliance. There are complex issues such as political differences, religious conflicts, and territorial disputes among Arab countries. Politically, countries have different political systems, some implementing monarchies while others have republics, with significant differences in political concepts and governance methods, making it difficult to form a unified political goal and action plan. In terms of religion, the conflict between Sunni and Shia is deeply rooted. As a major Shia country, Iran constantly competes with Sunni countries such as Saudi Arabia for regional influence, making it difficult for Arab countries to form a united military alliance. On territorial issues, there are territorial disputes between countries such as Jordan and Syria, Israel and Palestine, which make it difficult for countries to reach consensus on military cooperation.
The intervention of external forces is also an important reason. The Middle East has always been the focus of great power competition due to its abundant oil resources and important strategic location. Major powers such as the United States and Russia have their own strategic interests in the Middle East, and maintain their own interests by supporting different countries or forces. The United States has long maintained close military cooperation with countries such as Israel and Saudi Arabia, providing them with weapons, equipment, and military assistance to maintain its influence in the Middle East. Russia, on the other hand, has close relations with countries such as Syria and Iran, expanding its presence in the Middle East through military support and other means. This kind of intervention by major powers has imposed many constraints on Arab countries’ military cooperation, making it difficult for them to act independently without the influence of external forces.
The development level and military capabilities of Arab countries themselves are also important factors affecting the establishment of alliances. Some Arab countries have lagging economic development and weak military strength, making it difficult for them to play an important role in military alliances. Moreover, there are differences in military equipment and training levels among countries, making it difficult to form effective collaborative combat capabilities. When facing strong external threats, this military weakness makes it difficult for the alliance to play its due role.
1.3 Historical Failure Experience and Its Implications for the Current Situation
The failure experience of military alliances in the history of Arab countries in the Middle East provides important reference significance for the establishment of military blocs at present. Firstly, internal unity and cooperation are the key to the successful establishment of a military group. Arab countries must face and resolve their conflicts with each other, strengthen political dialogue, enhance mutual trust, in order to make progress in military cooperation. Countries should abandon narrow national interests and jointly address regional security challenges from the perspective of overall regional interests.
The influence of external forces needs to be handled with caution. Arab countries should not rely solely on the support of external powers when establishing military blocs, but should maintain a certain degree of independence. Only through our own efforts and strengthening military capacity building can we have more say in regional affairs. Countries should actively seek equal cooperation with other countries, establish diversified foreign relations, and reduce dependence on a single external power.
Arab countries still need to strengthen their own development and enhance their comprehensive national strength. Only economic prosperity, technological progress, and military strength can occupy a favorable position in regional and international affairs. Countries should increase investment in education, technology and other fields, cultivate high-quality talents, and enhance the overall strength of the country. At the same time, strengthening military cooperation and exchanges, improving the level of military equipment and combat capabilities, and laying the foundation for establishing an effective military group.
In the process of establishing military blocs, Arab countries should fully learn from historical lessons and avoid repeating the same mistakes. Only through unity, cooperation, independence, and self-development can we maintain our own security and interests in the complex and ever-changing regional situation.
2、 The impact of the current political landscape
2.1 Current political relations among major Middle Eastern countries
The political relations between major countries in the Middle East are complex and intertwined with cooperation and competition, allies and opponents.
The relationship between Arab countries and Israel is undergoing a historic transformation. Previously, Arab countries and Israel had long-standing conflicts due to territorial and religious issues. But in recent years, with the changing regional situation, more and more Arab countries have begun to change their policies towards Israel. The signing of a peace agreement and the establishment of formal diplomatic relations between the United Arab Emirates and Israel became a landmark event of this change. Subsequently, countries such as Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco also normalized their relations with Israel. These countries are cooperating with Israel in areas such as economy and security, attempting to enhance their regional and international status through reconciliation with Israel, as well as addressing common security threats such as Iran’s expanding regional influence.
The confrontation between Sunni and Shia countries continues to escalate. As a Sunni power, Saudi Arabia is fiercely competing with Shia power Iran for regional influence. The two countries confront each other in proxy wars in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, and other countries, supporting different political and military forces. Saudi Arabia and other Sunni countries accuse Iran of interfering in the internal affairs of other countries, attempting to establish a Shia arc and threatening regional security. Iran, on the other hand, believes that Saudi Arabia and other countries are promoting hegemony in the region and undermining regional stability. The contradictions between the two countries in terms of religious ideology, geopolitics, and other aspects are difficult to reconcile, leading to escalating sectarian conflicts in the Middle East region.
As an important force in the region, Türkiye’s foreign policy is also full of variables. Türkiye has certain cooperation with Russia, Iran and other countries on the Syrian issue, which jointly affects the development of the situation in Syria. But Türkiye also maintains certain relations with the United States, Israel and other countries, trying to find a balance between East and West. Türkiye is also actively involved in the internal affairs of Libya and other countries, trying to expand its influence in the region, and its relations with some Arab countries have become complicated.
The political relations between major Middle Eastern countries exhibit multi-level and multi-directional interactive characteristics. While pursuing their own interests, each country is constantly adjusting its relations with neighboring countries to cope with the complex and ever-changing regional situation.
2.2 Political differences hinder military cooperation
The political differences between Middle Eastern countries are multifaceted, and these differences seriously hinder the establishment of military blocs in multiple dimensions.
The differences in political systems are one of the important obstacles. Middle Eastern countries have diverse political systems, with some implementing monarchies such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, which emphasize royal rule and family interests; However, some countries have a republican system, such as Egypt, Syria, etc., with relatively dispersed political power. There are significant differences in political concepts and governance styles among countries with different political systems, and they have different understandings and needs for the goals and methods of military cooperation. Monarchical countries may be more inclined to maintain stability in their own rule, while republican countries may be more concerned with the development of the country and the interests of the people. This difference makes it difficult for countries to form a unified goal and action plan in military cooperation.
Religious conflicts are also insurmountable obstacles. The opposition between Sunni and Shia has a profound impact on the political relations of Middle Eastern countries. There are fundamental differences in religious ideology between Sunni countries such as Saudi Arabia and Shia countries such as Iran, which are not only reflected in their understanding of religious doctrines, but also involve competition for regional political structures. Sunni countries are concerned that the expansion of Shia influence may threaten their own status and security, while Shia countries attempt to expand their influence by supporting Shia forces. This religious conflict makes it difficult for Arab countries to form a united military alliance to counter external threats, and may instead consume each other due to internal conflicts.
The territorial dispute has further exacerbated political differences. There are territorial issues between Jordan and Syria, Israel and Palestine, and other countries, which often involve national sovereignty and national interests, and are a very sensitive and concerning focus for each country. In the absence of a resolution to territorial disputes, countries find it difficult to fully trust each other in military cooperation, fearing that military cooperation may harm their own territorial interests. For example, the territorial dispute between Israel and Palestine has led to differences in Arab countries’ treatment of Israel’s issues. Some countries may choose to cooperate with Israel because they share common interests, while others may oppose cooperation with Israel because they insist on Palestine’s territorial rights.
The struggle surrounding opposition and support for the Muslim Brotherhood is becoming increasingly apparent. The Muslim Brotherhood, as an Islamist organization, has a wide influence in the Middle East region. Some countries support the Muslim Brotherhood, hoping to use it to promote political change and Islamization; However, other countries oppose the Muslim Brotherhood, believing that it threatens national stability and secular politics. This struggle has led to political differences among Middle Eastern countries, affecting the possibility of military cooperation.
Political differences are also reflected in views on regional and international affairs. Different countries have different attitudes towards external powers and understandings of regional security issues, which makes it difficult for Middle Eastern countries to form consensus on military cooperation and establish effective military blocs to address regional challenges.
2.3 Impact of Regional Conflicts on the Establishment of Military Groups
The frequent conflicts in the Middle East have had a profound impact on the establishment of military blocs in Arab countries.
Regional conflicts have exacerbated conflicts and mistrust between countries. There have been long-standing conflicts in the Middle East, such as the Arab Israeli conflict, the Syrian civil war, and the Yemeni civil war. These conflicts have caused extreme tension in the relationships between the relevant countries, deepening hostility and distrust towards each other. For example, Israel has long been in conflict with neighboring Arab countries over territorial, religious, and other issues. In the Syrian civil war, various forces fought against each other, and in the Yemeni civil war, Saudi Arabia and other countries engaged in fierce confrontations with the Houthis. In the context of ongoing conflicts, it is difficult for countries to set aside their prejudices and join hands to establish military blocs. Countries tend to focus more on their own security interests and adopt a cautious attitude towards military cooperation with other countries, fearing that military cooperation may involve them in larger conflicts.
Regional conflicts have led to changes in the strategic focus and resource allocation of various countries. In regions with frequent conflicts, countries need to invest a significant amount of resources, including military force, economic resources, etc., in responding to conflicts. The Syrian government needs to invest a large number of troops to deal with domestic anti-government armed groups and terrorist organizations, and the Yemeni government has also consumed a lot of resources in the fight against the Houthis. In this situation, it is difficult for countries to allocate sufficient resources and energy to participate in the construction of military blocs. The establishment of military blocs requires extensive cooperation and investment from various countries in military equipment, training, command, and other aspects. However, regional conflicts make countries more inclined to use resources for their own defense and combat, making it difficult to form effective military cooperation mechanisms.
Regional conflicts also provide opportunities for external intervention, further hindering the establishment of military blocs. The Middle East region has always been the focus of great power competition due to its important strategic location and abundant oil resources. In regional conflicts, major powers such as the United States and Russia maintain their interests by supporting different forces. The United States supports countries such as Israel and Saudi Arabia by providing them with weapons, equipment, and military assistance; Russia, on the other hand, has close relations with countries such as Syria and Iran, expanding its presence in the Middle East through military support and other means. This kind of intervention by major powers imposes many constraints on military cooperation among Middle Eastern countries, making it difficult for them to act independently without the influence of external forces. When establishing military blocs, countries need to consider the attitudes and reactions of external powers, which increases the difficulty of establishing military blocs.
Regional conflicts have also led to instability in the regional situation, resulting in a lack of stable external environment for the establishment of military groups. The establishment of military groups needs to be carried out in a relatively stable regional environment, so that countries can focus on military cooperation and construction. The ongoing conflicts in the Middle East have made the situation full of uncertainty, making it difficult for countries to make clear plans and commitments for the future. In this unstable environment, it is difficult to make substantial progress in establishing military groups.
3、 Religious and ideological differences
3.1 Impact of Sunni Shia Conflict on Military Cooperation
Sunni and Shia, as the two main factions of Islam, have long-standing and complex conflicts, which have had a profound impact on military cooperation in the Middle East.
From a historical perspective, since the death of Prophet Muhammad, the competition for the position of caliph has planted the seeds of conflict. Shiites support Ali and his descendants inheriting the caliphate, while Sunnis recognize the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The assassination of Hussein in Karbala in 680 further intensified the conflict between the two factions and became an important emotional symbol of Shia religious identity. Afterwards, in the long historical process, Shia remained on the political periphery for most of the time, and conflicts with the mainstream Sunni ruling group continued to accumulate.
There are significant differences between the two factions in terms of religious doctrine and power structure. Shia emphasizes the authority of Imams, who have the power to interpret scriptures and lead believers, and the clerical class has significant influence in society. Sunni Muslims, on the other hand, are relatively ‘democratic’, with less clerical power and a more diverse understanding of doctrine among their followers. This difference often makes it difficult for the two factions to reach a consensus when facing problems. In military cooperation, Shia countries may be more inclined to follow the guidance of religious leaders, while there may be more diverse voices within Sunni countries.
In reality, the conflict between Sunni and Shia has become an important trigger for conflicts in the Middle East. As a Sunni power, Saudi Arabia is fiercely competing with Shia power Iran for regional influence. The two countries confront each other in proxy wars in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, and other countries, supporting different political and military forces. Saudi Arabia and other Sunni countries accuse Iran of interfering in the internal affairs of other countries, attempting to establish a Shia arc and threatening regional security. Iran, on the other hand, believes that Saudi Arabia and other countries are promoting hegemony in the region and undermining regional stability. This opposition makes it difficult for Arab countries to form a united military alliance to counter external threats, and may instead consume each other due to internal conflicts.
The conflict between Sunni and Shia also provides opportunities for external intervention. Great powers often exploit the contradictions between the two factions to achieve their strategic goals, exacerbating the complexity of the regional situation. In this context, the efforts of Arab countries to establish military blocs face enormous challenges, as it is difficult for countries to form consensus on military cooperation and to act independently without the influence of external forces.
3.2 The Impact of Islamic Faction Differences on Regional Politics
The divergence of Islamic sects is one of the important influencing factors in the formation and development of the political landscape in the Middle East region.
From a historical perspective, shortly after the establishment of Islam, different sects such as Sunni and Shia emerged due to different views on issues such as the succession of the caliph. These sects have continuously combined with local political forces in the long river of history, forming distinctive political cultures. In the history of the Middle East, the dynastic changes and rise and fall of regimes of different sects are closely related to sectarian differences. For example, the rule of the Shia Fatimid dynasty and the Buvi people both reflected the rise of sectarian power on the political stage.
In modern society, the impact of Islamic factional differences on regional politics is more complex. On the one hand, sectarian differences have exacerbated conflicts and oppositions between countries. Sunni and Shia countries often take different positions in regional affairs, supporting different political and military forces. The confrontation between Saudi Arabia and Iran is a typical example. This confrontation is not only reflected in direct conflicts between the two countries, but also affects the political landscape of the entire Middle East region through proxy wars that support their respective camps.
On the other hand, sectarian differences have also affected the political stability within the country. In some countries, there are conflicts of interest and political differences among believers of different denominations. For example, in Lebanon, political forces of different sects such as Sunni and Shia compete with each other, influencing the country’s political decision-making and development direction. In the Syrian civil war, sectarian differences have become an important excuse for the struggle of various forces, exacerbating the division and turmoil of the country.
The differences between Islamic sects are intertwined with other political ideologies such as nationalism and secularism, jointly affecting the political development of the Middle East region. Some countries attempt to downplay sectarian differences by emphasizing nationalism, but often find it difficult to completely eliminate the influence of sectarian factors. The struggle between secularism and religious forces has also been influenced to some extent by sectarian differences.
Sect differences also provide opportunities for external forces to intervene. Great powers often exploit sectarian conflicts in the Middle East to achieve their strategic goals and influence the regional political landscape by supporting different sectarian forces. This external intervention further exacerbates the political complexity in the Middle East, making the resolution of regional political issues more difficult.
3.3 The Impact of the Contradiction between Political Islam and Secularism on State Relations
The contradiction between political Islam and secularism is an important factor that cannot be ignored in the relations between Middle Eastern countries.
Political Islam advocates governing the country based on Islamic doctrine and emphasizes the dominant role of religion in political life. Secularism advocates for the separation of politics and religion, emphasizing the independence and secularism of state power. The contradiction between these two ideologies has always existed in the political development of Middle Eastern countries.
In terms of inter state relations, the contradiction between political Islam and secularism has led to political differences and policy confrontations between countries. Some countries with strong political Islamic influence, such as Iran, often emphasize the dissemination of Islamic values and the unity of the Islamic world in their foreign policies. Some countries with strong secularism tendencies, such as Türkiye and Egypt, pay more attention to national modernization and integration with the international community. This difference often leads to inconsistent positions and actions of these countries in regional affairs.
For example, on the issue of Palestine, Hamas, which has strong political Islamic influence, advocates using violent means to confront Israel and restore Palestinian territory and rights. Some Arab countries with strong secularism tend to resolve the Israeli Palestinian conflict through peaceful negotiations. This divergence not only affects the unity within Arab countries, but also makes it difficult for Arab countries to form a unified position in their relations with Israel.
The contradiction between political Islam and secularism can also easily lead to regional conflicts. In some countries, the struggle between political Islamic forces and secularist forces may lead to political turmoil and social instability. This kind of turbulence may spread to neighboring countries, affecting regional security and stability. For example, the struggle between the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood and the secular government not only affected political stability within Egypt, but also had an impact on neighboring Arab countries.
External forces often exploit the conflict between political Islam and secularism in Middle Eastern countries to achieve their strategic goals. Some major powers influence the political direction of Middle Eastern countries by supporting different political forces, exacerbating conflicts and contradictions between nations.
The contradiction between political Islam and secularism has had a profound impact on the relations between Middle Eastern countries. Only by strengthening dialogue and mutual understanding, seeking a path to balance religious and political relations, can peace and stability be promoted in the Middle East region.
4、 External forces intervene
4.1 Strategic interests of the United States in the Middle East
The strategic interests of the United States in the Middle East are diverse and complex, and these interests deeply influence the United States’ policy formulation and action direction in the Middle East region.
Oil resources were once one of the most core interests of the United States in the Middle East. Although the United States has now become the world’s largest producer of oil and natural gas, achieving energy independence, the oil market in the Middle East still has a significant impact on the United States. The Middle East is the main supplier of global oil, and its oil production and price fluctuations directly affect the stability of the global energy market. The United States needs to ensure a stable supply of Middle Eastern oil to maintain the balance of the global energy market, safeguard its economic interests and national security.
Counter terrorism is another important interest of the United States in the Middle East. After the 9/11 attacks, counter-terrorism became a top priority in the United States’ national security strategy. The Middle East is a high-risk area for terrorist activities, and the United States needs to combat terrorist organizations and prevent the threat of terrorism from spreading to the United States and its allies through military operations and intelligence cooperation in the Middle East.
Preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction is also a key concern for the United States in the Middle East. Some countries in the Middle East possess or attempt to develop weapons of mass destruction, such as Iran’s nuclear program, which poses a significant threat to the security of the United States and its allies. The United States needs to take various measures to prevent these weapons from falling into the hands of terrorist organizations or other hostile forces.
Protecting Israel’s security and promoting Israeli Palestinian peace talks are long-term interests of the United States in the Middle East. Israel is an important ally of the United States in the Middle East, and the United States needs to ensure Israel’s security to maintain its strategic presence in the Middle East. At the same time, the Israeli Palestinian conflict is an important contradiction in the Middle East, and the United States hopes to promote peace talks between Israel and Palestine to achieve regional peace and create favorable conditions for its strategic layout in the Middle East.
The United States is still concerned about geopolitical interests in the Middle East. The Middle East is located at the intersection of Asia, Africa, and Europe, serving as a transportation hub connecting the East and West, and controlling important sea lanes. The United States needs to ensure geopolitical stability in the Middle East to maintain its global hegemonic position.
With the changing international situation, the strategic interests of the United States in the Middle East are constantly adjusting, but its attention and intervention in the Middle East have never stopped, and the Middle East still occupies an important position in the United States’ global strategy.
4.2 Russia’s Influence in the Middle East
Russia’s influence in the Middle East has significantly increased in recent years, demonstrating its undeniable position on the international stage through a series of strategic measures.
Russia’s active involvement in the Syrian civil war is an important step in its Middle East strategy. In 2015, Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war at the request of the Syrian government and carried out strikes against anti-government armed groups and terrorist organizations. Russia’s military actions not only helped the Syrian government stabilize the situation, but also enhanced Russia’s influence in the Middle East region. Russia has established military bases in Syria, enhancing its military presence in the Middle East.
Russia has extensive cooperation with Middle Eastern countries in the field of energy. Russia, as an important global energy exporter, has complex interests in the oil market with Middle Eastern oil producing countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran. Russia influences international oil prices and maintains its own economic interests through energy cooperation with these countries. At the same time, Russia actively exports weapons and equipment to Middle Eastern countries and strengthens military cooperation with these countries.
Russia’s diplomatic activities in the Middle East are also very active. Russia maintains close diplomatic relations with Türkiye, Israel and other countries, coordinates the interests of all parties through diplomatic means, and expands its influence. On the Syrian issue, Russia, Türkiye, Iran and other countries jointly participated in mediation, trying to promote the political settlement of the Syrian issue. Russia is also actively developing relations with Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, and strengthening cooperation in economic, political, and other fields.
The development trend of Russia’s influence in the Middle East is showing a positive trend. With the strategic contraction of the United States in the Middle East, Russia seizes the opportunity to strengthen its ties with Middle Eastern countries and enhance its voice in regional affairs. Russia’s Middle East strategy not only helps alleviate its pressure in the European direction, but also creates favorable conditions for its economic development.
However, Russia’s influence in the Middle East also faces some challenges. The complex situation in the Middle East and the intertwined interests of all parties have made it difficult for Russia to promote the resolution of regional issues. Russia needs to continue to exert its diplomatic wisdom and military power, balance the interests of all parties, in order to maintain and expand its influence in the Middle East region.
4.3 The impact of external forces on the willingness of Arab countries to cooperate militarily
The influence of external forces on the military cooperation willingness of Arab countries in the Middle East is complex and far-reaching, mainly through the following ways.
Great power intervention is an important factor affecting the willingness of Arab countries to cooperate militarily. As one of the most influential powers in the Middle East, the United States has long supported countries such as Israel and Saudi Arabia by providing them with weapons, equipment, and military assistance to maintain its influence in the region. The military presence and intervention actions of the United States in the Middle East have imposed many constraints on Arab countries’ military cooperation, making it difficult for them to act independently without the influence of the United States. For example, the “Middle East Strategic Alliance” plan promoted by the United States aims to strengthen military and security cooperation between the United States and Arab countries in response to Iran’s regional influence expansion. This intervention has made some Arab countries more inclined to align with the United States in military cooperation, rather than establishing independent military blocs with other Arab countries.
Economic interests are also a key factor influencing the willingness of Arab countries to cooperate militarily through external forces. Russia and other major countries, through cooperation with Middle Eastern countries in energy, trade, and other fields, influence the economic interests of Arab countries, which in turn affects their military cooperation decisions. The cooperation between Russia and oil producing countries such as Saudi Arabia in the oil market requires these countries to consider their economic relationship with Russia in military cooperation. At the same time, external powers influence the domestic politics and economic policies of Arab countries by providing economic aid and investment, indirectly affecting their willingness to cooperate militarily.
Ideology and cultural factors also influence the willingness of Arab countries to cooperate militarily to a certain extent. Western powers influence the political and social development of Arab countries by spreading their values and culture, which in turn affects their military cooperation decisions. Some Arab countries may make choices in military cooperation that meet the expectations of external powers when facing cultural and ideological influences from them.
External forces also influence the willingness of Arab countries to cooperate militarily by supporting different political and military forces. In conflicts in the Middle East, major powers often support different forces to safeguard their own interests, which makes it difficult for Arab countries to form a unified position and action in military cooperation.
The influence of external forces poses many challenges and difficulties for Arab countries in military cooperation. Arab countries need to find a balance between safeguarding their own interests and responding to external influences in order to make progress in military cooperation.
5、 Internal factors in Arab countries
5.1 The impact of internal political system on military cooperation
The diverse and complex internal political systems of Arab countries in the Middle East have had a profound impact on the establishment of military blocs. Monarchical countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have a core position of royal rule and highly centralized national decision-making. In terms of military cooperation, these countries often take the interests of the royal family as the starting point, and the decision-making process is relatively closed and rapid. When facing the threat of Iran, Saudi Arabia can quickly make decisions to strengthen military cooperation with countries such as the United States to maintain its own security and family rule. But this system may also lead to a lack of broad public opinion in decision-making, which may affect the sustainability and stability of military cooperation when faced with certain opposition voices domestically.
Republican countries such as Egypt and Syria have relatively dispersed political power, and multi-party and electoral systems require decision-making to balance the interests of all parties. In military cooperation, different parties and political forces may put forward different opinions based on their own interests, resulting in a lengthy and variable decision-making process. For example, in Egypt, different political parties have varying attitudes towards military cooperation with Israel, which makes it difficult for Egypt to make quick decisions in regional military cooperation and can also hinder the implementation of military cooperation plans.
Some countries still have military governments or military intervention, such as during the Mubarak era in Egypt. The military holds an important position in national politics, and military cooperation is often closely linked to the interests of the military. The military may be more inclined to cooperate with countries that can provide them with weapons, equipment, and military training, which may sometimes be inconsistent with the long-term interests of the country and the needs of the people.
Under the influence of differences in political systems, Arab countries find it difficult to form unified actions and goals in military cooperation. The differences in interests, decision-making methods, and execution capabilities among countries with different systems pose significant challenges to the establishment of military blocs. Only by respecting each other’s political systems and seeking common interests can countries create favorable conditions for military cooperation.
5.2 The role of leadership strategic choices in military cooperation
The strategic choices of the leadership of Arab countries are a key factor in determining whether military cooperation can proceed smoothly. The leadership formulates different strategic decisions based on various considerations such as national interests, geopolitics, and external pressures, which in turn affect the direction of military cooperation.
Taking Saudi Arabia as an example, in the face of Iran’s expanding regional influence, the Saudi leadership has chosen to strengthen military cooperation with Sunni countries such as the United States and the United Arab Emirates, attempting to build a united front against Iran. This strategic choice has led Saudi Arabia to actively promote the establishment of military cooperation mechanisms such as the “Middle East Strategic Alliance” to safeguard its own security and regional interests. But this choice may also lead to further deterioration of relations with Shia countries, making the regional situation more complex.
During the Sisi government, the Egyptian leadership adopted the “Issue Alliance” strategy, collaborating with different countries on various issues. In terms of political security, Egypt strengthens military cooperation with countries such as Russia, purchases weapons and equipment, and enhances national defense capabilities; In terms of resource security, close ties are maintained with countries such as the United States and Europe to ensure economic assistance and investment. This flexible strategic choice enables Egypt to maintain its own interests in a complex international environment, but may also lead to conflicts and contradictions in military cooperation in certain situations.
The strategic choices of the leadership are also influenced by domestic political, economic, and other factors. In the context of domestic political stability and economic prosperity, the leadership has more resources and energy to invest in military cooperation; When facing political turmoil and economic difficulties domestically, the leadership may be more inclined to allocate resources towards solving domestic problems, thereby affecting the willingness and ability of military cooperation.
The strategic choices of the leadership need to comprehensively consider various domestic and international factors. Only by making decisions that are in line with the long-term interests of the country and the region can favorable conditions be created for military cooperation and promote the establishment of military groups.
5.3 Obstacles to military cooperation caused by domestic political turmoil
The domestic political turmoil in Arab countries has seriously hindered military cooperation. When a country faces a political crisis internally, the government often focuses its main energy on stabilizing the domestic situation and has no time to consider military cooperation with other countries.
After the 2011 Middle East upheaval, regimes in Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and other countries collapsed, causing political instability. In Egypt, after the overthrow of the Mubarak regime, the new government was busy dealing with domestic political transformation and power struggles, and was unable to engage in in-depth military cooperation with other Arab countries. In Libya and Yemen, civil wars continue, and the government is struggling to protect itself, let alone participate in regional military cooperation. This political turmoil has led to a lack of stable policies and continuous actions in military cooperation among relevant countries, making it difficult to form effective cooperation mechanisms with other countries.
Domestic political turmoil may also lead to the intensification of internal conflicts within the country, such as sectarian conflicts, ethnic conflicts, etc. These contradictions make it difficult for the country to form a unified position and action in military cooperation. For example, in the Syrian civil war, the struggle between government forces and opposition forces has led to the division of the country, with political forces of different sects and ethnicities confronting each other. In this situation, Syria finds it difficult to cooperate militarily with other Arab countries, and may instead become the focus of regional conflicts.
Political turmoil has also affected the country’s economic situation, leading to tight government finances and difficulty in investing sufficient resources into military cooperation. Military cooperation requires significant financial support for purchasing weapons and equipment, conducting military training, and conducting joint exercises. When the national economy is in trouble, the government has to cut military budgets, which affects the scale and effectiveness of military cooperation.
Political turmoil also reduces a country’s credibility and influence in the international community, and other countries may doubt its willingness and ability to cooperate militarily, thereby affecting the development of military cooperation. Only when Arab countries achieve domestic political stability can favorable conditions be created for military cooperation and promote the development of regional security and peace.
6、 Economic situation impact
6.1 The impact of oil revenue on the military power of Arab countries
The Arab countries in the Middle East have a large amount of oil revenue due to their abundant oil resources, which has had various impacts on their military power construction.
Oil revenue provides strong financial support for military construction in Arab countries. As a major oil country, Saudi Arabia has invested heavily in its military with its huge oil revenue. It purchased advanced weapons and equipment from countries such as the United States, such as F-15 fighter jets and Patriot missile systems, and established a relatively modern military. The introduction of these weapons and equipment has greatly enhanced Saudi Arabia’s military strength and defense capabilities, giving it strong military influence in the Gulf region and even the entire Middle East. The United Arab Emirates has also used its oil revenue to strengthen its military construction, purchasing advanced weapons such as France’s Rafale fighter jets, and enhancing its air combat capabilities.
Oil revenue has also promoted the development of military industry in Arab countries. Some countries use oil funds to build military industrial bases in an attempt to achieve independent production of weapons and equipment. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has actively promoted the localization of its military industry, collaborating with foreign companies to establish military industry projects aimed at reducing dependence on external weapons and equipment and enhancing its own military autonomy. Oil revenue also provides financial support for military talent cultivation, allowing Arab countries to send military personnel abroad for training, learn advanced military technology and tactics, and improve the overall quality of the military.
While oil revenue brings about an increase in military power, there are also certain issues. Excessive reliance on oil revenue for military construction makes some countries vulnerable to fluctuations in international oil prices in the context of a single economic structure. When oil prices fall, oil revenue decreases, and funding for military construction is limited, affecting the sustained enhancement of military power. Moreover, excessive reliance on the introduction of external weapons and equipment may also lead to being at the mercy of others in key technologies and facing risks in wars or conflicts.
The impact of oil revenue on the military power of Arab countries is complex, as it brings some challenges while enhancing military strength. Arab countries need to focus on diversifying their economic structure while utilizing oil revenues to strengthen military construction, in order to achieve sustainable development of military power.
6.2 Restrictions on Military Cooperation Due to Economic Difficulties
Middle Eastern Arab countries face various restrictions on military cooperation when facing economic difficulties.
Economic difficulties have led to a reduction in military budgets in Arab countries. Military spending is an important guarantee for military cooperation. When a country’s economy is in trouble and its fiscal revenue decreases, the government has to cut military spending. For example, in the Yemeni civil war, the Yemeni government faced economic collapse and severe military shortages, making it difficult to engage in effective military cooperation with other countries. The reduction in military spending has restricted the updating of weapons and equipment, military training, and joint exercises of the military, affecting its combat capabilities and level of cooperation.
Economic difficulties have also affected the infrastructure construction of Arab countries. Military cooperation requires good infrastructure such as transportation and communication as support. In the context of economic difficulties, the country is unable to invest a large amount of funds in infrastructure construction, resulting in insufficient hardware conditions for military cooperation. For example, in some countries, due to economic problems, transportation facilities such as roads and railways have been in disrepair for a long time, which has affected the transportation of military materials and the mobility of the military. The imperfect communication facilities also hinder information exchange in military cooperation.
Economic difficulties can easily trigger domestic political and social problems. When the national economy is in poor condition, people’s living standards decline, social dissatisfaction increases, and the government needs to focus more energy on solving domestic problems, leaving no time for military cooperation with other countries. In countries such as Egypt, economic difficulties have led to social unrest, and governments are busy dealing with domestic political crises, making it difficult to engage in deep military cooperation with other Arab countries.
Economic difficulties have also led to a decline in the international status and influence of Arab countries. In international military cooperation, the status and influence of a country are important cooperative capital. Economically disadvantaged countries have weakened their voice in international affairs, making it difficult to reach favorable military cooperation agreements with other countries, thereby limiting the development of military cooperation.
The limitations of economic difficulties on military cooperation among Arab countries in the Middle East are comprehensive, affecting not only the hardware conditions for military cooperation, but also the internal stability and international status of the country. Only by solving economic problems and achieving economic development can favorable conditions be created for military cooperation.
6.3 The Promoting Effect of Economic Cooperation on Military Cooperation
Economic cooperation can promote military cooperation among Arab countries in the Middle East in certain situations.
Economic cooperation can enhance mutual trust between countries. In economic cooperation, countries increase their interdependence and common interests through cooperation in trade, investment, and other fields, which helps to enhance trust between countries. For example, Saudi Arabia and Gulf countries such as the United Arab Emirates have close economic cooperation in areas such as oil trade, which makes it easier for them to reach consensus on military cooperation and jointly address regional security threats.
Economic cooperation can drive the infrastructure construction of relevant countries. Infrastructure construction is an important foundation for military cooperation. Through economic cooperation, countries can jointly invest in the construction of transportation, communication and other infrastructure, providing convenience for military cooperation. For example, under the “the Belt and Road” initiative, China has carried out economic cooperation with some Middle Eastern countries to help them build infrastructure, which not only promotes economic development, but also provides support for military cooperation.
Economic cooperation can also promote technological exchange and talent cultivation. In economic cooperation, countries can promote military technology exchange and cooperation through technology transfer, joint research and development, and other means. At the same time, the education and training opportunities brought about by economic cooperation also contribute to the cultivation of military talents and the improvement of the quality and capabilities of the military. While China and countries such as Saudi Arabia engage in economic cooperation in the energy sector, they also have some cooperation in military technology exchange and talent cultivation.
Economic cooperation can enhance a country’s economic strength and provide more financial support for military cooperation. When the national economy is prosperous, the government has more financial resources for military construction and cooperation, can purchase more advanced weapons and equipment, conduct more extensive military training and joint exercises.
However, the promoting effect of economic cooperation on military cooperation is not absolute, as it is influenced by various factors such as political relations between countries and intervention from external forces. Only under a favorable political environment and stable regional situation can economic cooperation better promote military cooperation and advance peace and stability in the Middle East region.
7、 Cultural differences and ethnic identity
7.1 The impact of Arab nationalism and national identity on military cooperation
Arab nationalism has gone through ups and downs since modern times, and has had a profound impact on military cooperation among Middle Eastern countries. Arab nationalism emphasizes the integrity and common interests of the Arab nation, advocating for unity among Arab countries, and has promoted some attempts at military cooperation in history. In the mid-20th century, pan Arabism was prevalent, and leaders of Egypt and other countries advocated for Arab unity, attempting to counter external threats and Israel through joint military forces. During this period, Arab countries had some cooperation in military affairs.
But Arab nationalism also faces many challenges, as there is a contradiction between it and national identity. With the increasing awareness of independence in Arab countries, national nationalism is gradually emerging, and countries are paying more attention to their own interests and development. National identity emphasizes the ethnicity, culture, and interests within national borders, which conflicts with the pan Arab unity advocated by Arab nationalism. In military cooperation, countries often prioritize their own national interests and find it difficult to achieve a unified military cooperation goal.
For example, when facing the expansion of Iran’s regional influence, Sunni countries such as Saudi Arabia attempted to form a military alliance to counter Iran, but some Arab countries, considering their economic ties or other interests with Iran, failed to actively participate. In this situation, the appeal of Arab nationalism is difficult to surpass the differences caused by national identity, which makes it difficult to effectively promote military cooperation.
Moreover, the political, economic, and cultural differences within Arab countries also limit the role of Arab nationalism in promoting military cooperation. The political systems, development levels, and ethnic compositions of different countries vary, and their demands and attitudes towards military cooperation also differ. In some countries, nationalist sentiment may be exploited to safeguard the interests of specific political groups, rather than to promote military cooperation with other Arab countries.
The contradiction between Arab nationalism and national identity poses complex challenges for Middle Eastern countries in military cooperation. Only by respecting the national identity of each country and seeking a balance between Arab nationalism and national interests can favorable conditions be created for military cooperation.
7.2 Manifestations of trust deficiency caused by cultural differences
Cultural differences in the Middle East are one of the important factors leading to a lack of trust between countries. This cultural difference is reflected in multiple aspects, such as religious beliefs, values, historical traditions, etc., which have a negative impact on military cooperation between countries.
The differences in religious beliefs are an important part of cultural differences. The main belief in the Middle East is Islam, but there are two major factions within Islam: Sunni and Shia. These two factions have significant differences in religious doctrines, power structures, and other aspects, leading to profound contradictions between Sunni and Shia countries. The fierce competition for regional influence between Sunni countries such as Saudi Arabia and Shia countries such as Iran has made it difficult for the two countries to cooperate militarily and has also affected trust between other Arab countries.
Differences in values also lead to a lack of trust. The values of Middle Eastern countries are influenced by various factors such as Islamic culture and Arab culture, and there are differences in the treatment of political, economic, and social issues among different countries’ values. For example, some countries emphasize the dominant role of religion in political life, while others focus more on secularization and modernization. The differences in these values make it difficult for countries to form a consensus on military cooperation, which can lead to misunderstandings and suspicions.
The differences in historical traditions and ethnic identity also have an impact on the lack of trust. The Middle East has a long history, and different countries and ethnic groups have different historical memories and national emotions. For example, the long-standing conflict between Arab countries and Israel over historical issues has made it difficult for Arab countries to fully trust Israel and has also affected military cooperation between Arab countries.
Cultural differences are also reflected in language, customs, social structures, and other aspects, which make it easy for countries to encounter barriers and misunderstandings in communication and cooperation, thereby affecting the establishment of trust. In military cooperation, a high degree of trust and tacit understanding is required, but the lack of trust caused by cultural differences makes it difficult for such cooperation to proceed smoothly.
The cultural differences in the Middle East are multifaceted, and these differences have led to a lack of trust between countries on multiple levels. Only by strengthening cultural exchanges and understanding, narrowing cultural differences, can favorable conditions be created for military cooperation.
7.3 Methods to overcome cultural barriers and promote military cooperation
To overcome cultural barriers in the Middle East and promote military cooperation, various methods can be adopted.
Strengthening cultural exchange is an important way. Countries can enhance mutual understanding and respect by organizing cultural festivals, art exhibitions, academic exchanges, and other activities. For example, Arab countries can jointly organize Islamic cultural festivals with other countries to showcase the Islamic cultural characteristics of different countries and promote cultural exchange and integration. Through cultural exchange, misunderstandings and biases caused by cultural differences can be reduced, creating a favorable cultural atmosphere for military cooperation.
Strengthening language education is also crucial. Language is a bridge for cultural exchange, and countries can strengthen each other’s language education and enhance language communication. For example, promoting English education in Arab countries while promoting Arabic education in other countries. Through language education, communication efficiency between countries can be improved, misunderstandings and conflicts caused by language barriers can be reduced, and convenience can be provided for information exchange and command coordination in military cooperation.
Promoting cultural integration is a long-term strategy. Countries can seek cultural commonalities and promote cultural integration while respecting their respective cultural characteristics. For example, in military cooperation, different countries’ military cultures and management experiences can be borrowed to form a military cooperation culture with Middle Eastern characteristics. Through cultural integration, it can enhance the sense of identity and belonging among countries, providing sustained impetus for military cooperation.
Establishing a mutual trust mechanism is a necessary guarantee. Countries can enhance mutual trust by signing military cooperation agreements, establishing military exchange mechanisms, and other means. For example, regular military exercises, military seminars, and other activities are held to strengthen communication and cooperation among military personnel. The establishment of a mutual trust mechanism can reduce suspicion and misunderstanding among countries and provide stable guarantees for military cooperation.
Strengthening international cooperation is also an important means. Countries can seek support from the international community to promote cultural exchange and military cooperation in the Middle East through the influence of international organizations or major powers. For example, the United Nations can organize cultural exchange programs to promote cultural exchange between Middle Eastern countries and other countries; Great powers can play a mediating role in promoting military cooperation between Middle Eastern countries.
Overcoming cultural barriers in the Middle East and promoting military cooperation requires joint efforts from all parties. Through various means such as strengthening cultural exchanges, enhancing language education, promoting cultural integration, establishing mutual trust mechanisms, and strengthening international cooperation, cultural barriers can be gradually eliminated to create favorable conditions for military cooperation and promote peace and stability in the Middle East region.
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