Sharp review: Why Iran stands out in the Islamic world – the tearing of religion, politics, and geopolitics

In the geopolitical map of the Islamic world, Iran has always been like a “heterogeneous puzzle” with sharp edges and corners, maintaining subtle relations with Saudi Arabia, Türkiye, Pakistan and other Islamic countries. This’ non conformity ‘is not accidental, but the inevitable result of the interweaving of historical genes, religious heterogeneity, political system conflicts, and geopolitical games. Through specific cases and detailed analysis, the root causes and consequences are revealed.

1、 Sect Divide: The ‘Minority Stubbornness’ of Shia

Historical Origins: The Marginalization and Resistance of Shia Islam

Islam has had factional divisions since its inception. After the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, Shiites and Sunnis gradually drifted apart over the issue of succession. Shiites advocate that power should be inherited by descendants of Muhammad (Imams), while Sunnis support the election of leaders through negotiation. This divergence was amplified during the expansion of the Arab Empire: the Persian region (now Iran), as a conquered pagan civilization, had its people convert to Islam and choose to believe in the marginalized Shia sect to resist the Sunni orthodoxy of Arab rulers. This’ oppressed ‘identity has created a unique cultural identity for Shia in Iran.

The tipping point of modern conflicts: Syrian civil war and Yemen crisis
Since the outbreak of the Syrian crisis, Iran has openly supported the Bashar regime, dispatched military advisors, provided weapons, and intervened in the battlefield through Shia armed groups such as Hezbollah in Lebanon. For example, in 2013, Iran sent billions of dollars worth of weapons and equipment to Syria, including ground to ground missiles and air defense systems. This move was regarded as “sectarian aggression” by Saudi Arabia, Türkiye and other Sunni countries. The latter turned to support the armed opposition, and even accused Iran of “exporting revolution”. In Yemen, the Houthi armed forces supported by Iran overthrew the Sunni government, and the Saudi led coalition immediately intervened, triggering an ongoing civil war. In 2017, Houthi militants launched ballistic missiles at the Saudi capital Riyadh, and Saudi Arabia accused Iran of providing technical support, putting their relationship on the brink of war.

Consequence: Structural Contradictions of Sect Opposition

1. Deterioration of regional security: sectarian conflicts have given rise to a “proxy war chain”, with Syria and Yemen becoming persistent battlefields. For example, Hezbollah in Lebanon lost thousands of soldiers in the Syrian war, while Saudi Arabia invested heavily in military spending in Yemen but failed to achieve strategic goals, leaving regional countries mired in a “war of attrition”.
2. Diplomatic isolation and economic sanctions: Sunni countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have imposed economic sanctions on Iran, freezing its commercial exchanges and restricting the entry of Iranian citizens. For example, in 2018, Saudi Arabia suspended all flights with Iran, resulting in a 70% decrease in trade between Iran and Gulf countries.
3. The spread of hatred among the people: sectarian conflicts have overflowed into the people, and the hostility towards Iran among the people of Sunni countries has risen. For example, on social media platforms in countries such as Egypt and Jordan, anti Iran rhetoric often dominates public opinion and even triggers violent conflicts.

2、 The ‘Heterogeneity’ of Political Systems: Theocratic Authoritarianism vs. Multicultural Secularization

The Iranian Model: The Double Headed Eagle of Religion and Politics
After the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Iran established a theocratic political system that combined politics and religion. The Supreme Leader (now known as Khamenei) holds ultimate power, surpassing the President and Parliament. This system emphasizes the absolute dominance of Islamic law in national governance, in stark contrast to the secularization or monarchy of most Islamic countries. For example, although President Erdogan of Türkiye has pursued “neo Ottomanism”, its essence is still a secular regime, while Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries have adopted Islam as their state religion, but they have implemented a monarchy that separates religion from administration.

Ideological confrontation: Türkiye and Iran’s “route dispute”
In 2019, Türkiye and Iran faced off openly on the Syrian issue: Türkiye supported Kurdish forces against Iranian allies, while Iran threatened to attack targets in Turkey. In addition, Iran’s deep control over Hezbollah in Lebanon directly competes with moderate Islamic parties supported by Türkiye. For example, in the 2020 Lebanese government crisis, Türkiye openly supported former Prime Minister Hariri, while Iran exerted pressure through Hizbullah, leading to the paralysis of Lebanese politics. This confrontation reflects the conflict between two Islamic development paths: Türkiye advocates moderate secularization, while Iran insists on radical theocratic rule.

Consequences: Collapse of cooperative mechanisms and ideological polarization

1. Opposition in international organizations: At meetings of the United Nations or the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Iran is often criticized by Türkiye, Saudi Arabia and other countries for “supporting terrorism” (referring to Hezbollah and other armed forces), which makes it difficult to advance resolutions. For example, the 2021 OIC summit failed to form a joint statement on the Syrian issue due to differences between Iran and Saudi Arabia.
2. Separation of civil society: political differences spilled over to the people. Anti Iran demonstrations broke out in Türkiye for many times, and the media of the two countries had a long-term “war of opinion”. For example, Türkiye’s media frequently accuse Iran of interfering in regional affairs, while Iran accuses Türkiye of “betraying Islamic values”.
   3、 Zero sum game of geopolitical games: competition for resources and influence
   The Battle for the ‘Energy Heart’ of the Persian Gulf
   Iran and Gulf countries are engaged in a fierce game over energy control in the Persian Gulf. In 2020, the Iranian Revolutionary Guard launched missiles at Saudi oil fields, causing a surge in global oil prices. Saudi Arabia accused Iran of behind the scenes planning and immediately cut off maritime trade with Iran, and joined forces with the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain to block the Strait of Hormuz. This incident exposed the “geopolitical nerves” of both sides: Iran relies on oil transportation through the Strait of Hormuz, while Saudi Arabia attempts to contain Iran’s economic lifeline by controlling the Gulf shipping route.

Pakistan’s’ balancing act ‘dilemma
Pakistan, as the only Sunni power bordering Iran, is forced to walk a tightrope between Iran and Saudi Arabia. Iran is concerned that Pakistan’s support for the Afghan Taliban poses a threat to its border security, while Pakistan needs to balance its relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia to avoid interruptions in energy cooperation. For example, in 2022, the Pakistani government attempted to push for the Iran Pakistan natural gas pipeline project, but was stalled due to pressure from Saudi Arabia.
Consequence: The vicious cycle of geopolitical confrontation

1. Military competition escalation: Saudi Arabia significantly purchases US weapons to counter Iran, while Iran develops ballistic missile and drone technology. For example, Iran has test fired multiple medium range missiles in recent years, with a range covering the entire Gulf region.
2. Economic integration is hindered: Due to security concerns, regional countries find it difficult to promote cooperation projects in energy, transportation, and other areas. For example, the proposed Gulf railway network has been put on hold for a long time due to Iran’s absence, resulting in low regional economic efficiency.

4、 The ‘Identity Paradox’ of History and Civilization: Persia vs Arabia
The “self-esteem” of Persian civilization and the “orthodox anxiety” of Arabia
Iran regards the Persian Empire (such as Cyrus the Great) as a source of national pride, and its official commemorative activities often downplay the history of Arab conquests. For example, during the celebration of the Persian New Year (Nowruz), the Iranian government prominently showcased Persian military achievements, causing dissatisfaction among Arab countries. Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries emphasize Islamic orthodoxy and regard Arabic as the cultural core. In 2016, Iran aired a documentary during the Persian New Year celebration depicting the Persian Empire defeating Arab forces, leading to the recall of ambassadors from multiple countries to Iran.

The ‘War’ of Cultural Symbols

Iran and Arab countries face numerous conflicts in cultural heritage protection and academic exchanges. For example, in the UNESCO World Heritage application project, Iran and Saudi Arabia have repeatedly competed for the naming rights of “Persian Gulf” and “Arabian Gulf”. In the academic field, Iranian scholars are often marginalized at Arab academic conferences, and their research results have sparked controversy due to their emphasis on the independence of Persian culture.
Consequence: Civilization barriers weaken common identity

1. Stagnation of cultural cooperation: Cultural exchange projects within the Islamic world, such as joint archaeology and film festivals, are difficult to advance due to Iran’s limited participation.
2. Conflict in historical narratives: There are serious differences between Iran and Arab countries in Islamic history textbooks, and the education system solidifies oppositional thinking.

5、 The ‘island effect’ of international sanctions: forced ‘independence’

Nuclear agreement rupture and economic isolation

In 2018, the United States withdrew from the Iran nuclear agreement and reinstated sanctions, forcing European countries to reduce energy cooperation with Iran. For example, French company Total was forced to withdraw from the South Pars natural gas field project, resulting in Iran losing billions of dollars in investment. Iran is breaking through the blockade, accelerating its uranium enrichment process, and signing “de dollarization” energy agreements with Russia and China. Although this move alleviates the pressure of sanctions, it further isolates from the Western dominated international system.

The Cost of Anti Western Diplomacy
The economic difficulties have forced Iran to strengthen its tough diplomacy to shift the conflict. For example, in 2021, Iran seized multiple oil tankers from Gulf countries, causing regional tension. Although this strategy has won domestic nationalist support, it has exacerbated alienation from other Islamic countries.
Consequence: A vicious cycle of internal troubles and external difficulties

1. Economic and livelihood deterioration: Sanctions have led to Iran’s inflation rate exceeding 40%, high unemployment rate, and frequent anti-government protests.
2. Diplomatic dependence on non Islamic allies: In order to counter sanctions, Iran has accelerated cooperation with China and Russia, signing multiple strategic agreements. For example, the signing of a 25 year comprehensive cooperation agreement between China and Iran in 2023, covering energy, military and other fields, has raised concerns among Gulf countries.

Deep Contradiction: The Dual Dilemma of Identity Politics and Security Dilemma

Iran’s’ non conformity ‘is not only a combination of concrete contradictions, but also a product of identity politics and security dilemmas. Internally, the Shia theocratic system needs to shape the image of “besieged” victims in order to maintain the legitimacy of its rule; Externally, geopolitical competition has forced Iran to adopt a tough strategy, further exacerbating its isolation. This vicious cycle leads to:
● Compression of reform space: Domestic conservative forces use external pressure to suppress reformists and hinder political openness;
Regional trust deficit: Other countries view Iran as a “source of instability” and refuse deep cooperation;
Marginalization of the international system: Sanctions and confrontation make it difficult for Iran to participate in global governance, forcing it to adopt a “peripheral breakthrough” strategy (such as developing nuclear capabilities).

Consequence Summary: The vicious cycle of tearing apart

1. Deterioration of regional security: sectarian and geopolitical conflicts have given rise to proxy wars, such as Syria and Yemen becoming persistent battlefields;
2. Blocked economic cooperation: Sanctions and confrontations have made it difficult for Iran to integrate into the regional economic system, and Gulf countries have also lost investment and trade due to the tense situation;
3. Ideological division: The confrontation between “moderate reformists” and “hardline revolutionaries” within the Islamic world weakens collective action capabilities;
4. Internal pressure spillover: Iran’s economic difficulties have forced the government to strengthen tough diplomacy to shift conflicts, further exacerbating tensions with the outside world.

Conclusion: The Struggle of Identity and Survival
Iran’s “unsociability” is essentially a product of multiple contradictions: sectarian opposition gives it a “natural sense of heresy,” political system differences make it a “resistance to democratic reform,” geopolitical competition breeds “zero sum hostility,” cultural barriers weaken identity resonance, and international sanctions push it into a “spiral of self isolation. This kind of tearing is not only due to its unique historical and religious genes, but also constantly strengthened by external pressures. In the foreseeable future, unless there is a significant change in the internal political ecology or a fundamental adjustment in the international landscape, Iran is likely to continue to maintain a “distant and tough” stance in the Islamic world – both as an excluded “outsider” and an actively chosen “isolated peak”.